Political Accountability and Ethical Governance: Comparative Insights from the Global North and South

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“North and South collide, yet the sky refuses to choose a side.”

By Small Drops Balananthini Balasubramaniam

Introduction

Political accountability is a cornerstone of democratic governance. In established democracies, legitimacy extends beyond electoral victory to include ethical conduct, transparency, and institutional integrity (Diamond, 2019; Norris, 2021). Leaders are expected to act responsibly; even the perception of wrongdoing, without formal conviction, can lead to resignation, legal consequences, or political marginalisation (Mulgan, 2000; Besley & Prat, 2006).

The Global South, home to approximately 80% of the world’s population, presents a starkly contrasting picture. Accountability is often sporadic, selective, and reactive, despite the presence of legal and institutional frameworks (Transparency International, 2020; Kaufmann, Kraay, & Mastruzzi, 2010). Social and cultural norms—including patronage networks, hierarchical loyalty, and historical narratives—frequently inhibit preventive ethical governance (Gerring, Thacker, & Moreno, 2005; Treisman, 2000).

Furthermore, diaspora populations from the Global South living in Western democracies may retain limited civic and ethical mindsets, constraining knowledge acquisition, research perspectives, and lifestyle development (Levitt, 2001; Vertovec, 2009). This article examines comparative accountability mechanisms, using case studies, structural analysis, and social mindset considerations to explore why such disparities persist and how they shape global governance outcomes.

*Accountability in Western Democracies (Global North)*

Western democracies demonstrate predictable, structured, and socially internalised accountability. Public trust is a non-negotiable value, and institutional independence ensures that leaders are held accountable for both legal breaches and ethical misconduct (Diamond, 2019; Norris, 2021). Preventive mechanisms, media scrutiny, civil society engagement, and cultural expectations collectively uphold governance integrity (Mulgan, 2000; Besley & Prat, 2006).

Key Cases – Global North

United Kingdom

Boris Johnson (PM): COVID-19 lockdown parties (“Partygate”), resigned 7 July 2022; illustrates public opinion and parliamentary oversight enforcing moral accountability (BBC News, 2022; UK Cabinet Office, 2022).

Theresa May (PM): Inability to deliver Brexit, resigned 7 June 2019; demonstrates accountability for performance ethics rather than personal misconduct (UK Parliament Records, 2019).

Matt Hancock (Health Secretary): Breach of COVID regulations, resigned 26 June 2021; exemplifies the inseparability of personal morality and public duty (The Guardian, 2021).

Canada

Jody Wilson-Raybould (Attorney General): SNC-Lavalin case, resigned 12 Feb 2019 to protect prosecutorial independence (House of Commons, 2019).

Jane Philpott (Treasury Board President): Loss of confidence in government ethics, resigned 4 March 2019; reinforces ministerial integrity norms (Canadian Press, 2019).

Australia

Malcolm Turnbull (PM): Resigned 24 Aug 2018 due to loss of party confidence; internal governance scrutiny highlighted (Australian Parliament, 2018).

Angus Taylor (Energy Minister): Alleged falsification of emissions data; public and media scrutiny reinforced accountability (Sydney Morning Herald, 2019).

Germany

Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Defence Minister): Plagiarism in doctoral dissertation, resigned 1 March 2011; academic dishonesty undermines political credibility (Bundestag Records, 2011).

Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer (CDU Leader): Leadership crisis, resigned Feb 2020; internal party ethics enforced accountability (DW, 2020).

France

Nicolas Sarkozy (President): Corruption and influence-peddling, sentenced 1 March 2021 (Le Monde, 2021).

François Fillon (PM): Misuse of public funds (“Penelopegate”), sentenced 29 June 2020 (France24, 2020).

Jérôme Cahuzac (Budget Minister): Tax fraud and money laundering; resigned 2013, sentenced 2016 (Le Figaro, 2016).

United States

Richard Nixon (President): Watergate scandal, resigned 8 Aug 1974 (US National Archives, 1974).

Bill Clinton (President): Lewinsky scandal; impeached by House, acquitted by Senate; public censure affected credibility (US Congress, 1998–1999).

New Zealand

David Lange (PM): Resigned Aug 1989 due to internal party conflict and leadership pressure (New Zealand Parliamentary Records, 1989).

Winston Peters (Deputy PM/Minister): Portfolio adjustments under parliamentary scrutiny due to conflicts of interest (NZ Herald, 1998).

Switzerland

Christoph Blocher (Federal Councillor): Ethical concerns and party conflict; left office 2007 after electoral loss (Swiss Federal Archives, 2007).

*Accountability in the Global South (Developing Countries)*

In the Global South, accountability is typically inconsistent, reactive, and selective. Institutions may exist but are often politicised, under-resourced, or influenced by elite networks (Transparency International, 2020; Kaufmann, Kraay, & Mastruzzi, 2010). Social and historical narratives emphasising loyalty and hierarchical obedience frequently override principle-based governance (Gerring, Thacker, & Moreno, 2005; Treisman, 2000). High-profile scandals or external pressure may trigger enforcement, but minor infractions rarely result in consequences (Rose-Ackerman, 1999).

Key Cases – Global South

India

Lalu Prasad Yadav (Chief Minister): Fodder Scam, convicted and imprisoned (Supreme Court of India, 2017).

V.K. Sasikala (Party Leader): Disproportionate assets case; jailed 2017 (Supreme Court of India, 2017).

Pakistan

Yousaf Raza Gilani (PM/Speaker): Misuse of authority, convicted 2001 (Pakistani Judiciary Records, 2001).

Benazir Bhutto / Asif Ali Zardari: Corruption and misuse of office; selective prosecution.

Sri Lanka

Multiple MPs and Ministers: Corruption and misuse of public funds; enforcement inconsistent and ongoing (Transparency International Sri Lanka, 2020).

Indonesia

Post-Suharto reforms: Parliamentary officials and bankers involved in corruption; enforcement uneven.

Malaysia

1MDB scandal: Misuse of sovereign-wealth funds; high-profile investigations, resignations, and asset recovery (Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission, 2018).

South Africa

Bosasa / Zondo Commission: State capture and bribery; judicial exposure and public pressure triggered reforms (Zondo Commission Reports, 2020).

Malawi

Cashgate scandal: Embezzlement of ~$32 million; over 70 arrests and several convictions (Malawi Auditor General, 2014).

Brazil / Latin America

Odebrecht scandal: Bribery and kickbacks; multiple convictions across countries (Odebrecht Reports, 2016).

Peru

Presidents Alberto Fujimori and Martín Vizcarra: Embezzlement and bribery; convicted and imprisoned after delays (Peruvian Judiciary Records, 2018–2020).

Global / Multi-country

Panama Papers (2016): Offshore accounts of officials in multiple developing countries exposed; triggered resignations and investigations (ICIJ, 2016).

*Comparative Assessment: North vs South*

Frequency and predictability

North: Consistent, swift enforcement (Diamond, 2019; Norris, 2021).

South: Sporadic, selective, delayed (Transparency International, 2020).

Preventive vs reactive

North: Preventive; action taken before legitimacy collapses (Mulgan, 2000).

South: Reactive; triggered by scandals, crises, or external pressure (Rose-Ackerman, 1999).

Institutional independence

North: Courts, media, and civil society operate autonomously (Besley & Prat, 2006).

South: Institutions often politicised or influenced by elite networks (Kaufmann, Kraay, & Mastruzzi, 2010).

Social and cultural internalisation

North: Ethical norms deeply embedded; citizens expect integrity (Diamond, 2019).

South: Historical narratives, loyalty, and hierarchical obedience limit internalisation; diaspora may retain patronage-driven mindsets (Treisman, 2000; Levitt, 2001; Vertovec, 2009).

Civic impact

North: Public trust reinforced; systemic preventive ethics maintained (Norris, 2021).

South: Trust eroded; episodic accountability undermines development, research, and innovation (Cultural persistence in corruption, 2022).

*Global implication*

Despite hosting 80% of humanity, weak accountability in the South sustains underdevelopment and structural inequality (Rose-Ackerman, 1999; Treisman, 2000).

*Social and Cognitive Implications*

Preventive ethical governance in the North fosters intellectual growth, research development, societal diversity, and innovative thinking (Diamond, 2019; Norris, 2021).

In the South, limited accountability results in restricted knowledge, perspectives, lifestyles, research output, and developmental potential (Treisman, 2000; Rose-Ackerman, 1999; Cultural persistence in corruption, 2022).

Even diaspora populations from the South may retain patronage-driven mindsets, limiting the internalisation of preventive ethical norms and perpetuating cycles of underdevelopment (Levitt, 2001; Vertovec, 2009).

Conclusion

Western democracies exemplify predictable, preventive, and socially embedded accountability, where even suspicion can lead to resignation or prosecution.

The Global South demonstrates sporadic, delayed, and selective enforcement, often dependent on extraordinary circumstances or external intervention.

Cultural and institutional factors explain why the majority of humanity remains subject to weaker and less predictable accountability mechanisms, despite demographic and resource advantages.

Addressing these disparities is essential for strengthening global ethical standards, governance reforms, and equitable societal development.

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By Small Drops Balananthini Balasubramaniam